Missiles return to Europe – what direction are they pointing in?

From Paris to Berlin, the continent’s “missile revival” looks impressive on paper – but few of its systems have ever faced a real war

The development of missile technology in Europe has been shaped by the legacy of the Second World War. In Germany, all research and production of missile systems was halted after 1945, despite the country’s vast experience and contributions to global rocketry. The United Kingdom and France, by contrast, continued to develop their own independent nuclear and missile programs. Cross-European cooperation in this field began only in the 1960s.

Today, most European countries act as consumers rather than producers of missile systems. However, as members of NATO, they collectively maintain a substantial combined capability.

Since the United Kingdom’s exit from the European Union and in the wake of major shifts in the continent’s security architecture, the development of missile systems in EU states has entered a new phase. For decades, many countries relied almost entirely on American systems or on weapons inherited from the Cold War era. Now there is a visible trend toward strategic autonomy, national high-tech projects, and deeper industrial integration.

The missile forces of the EU countries are gradually evolving from a fragmented set of national programs into a layered and interconnected structure capable of addressing a wide spectrum of missions – from tactical battlefield operations to strategic deterrence.

Still, this progress remains uneven. Europe’s growing emphasis on autonomy often clashes with its reliance on American technology and NATO frameworks, leaving its missile ambitions both ambitious and constrained.

France: The last independent arsenal in Europe

France was once the only European country to maintain a fully operational nuclear triad, which included land-based ballistic missiles, nuclear-powered submarines loaded with ballistic missiles, and long-range bombers equipped with nuclear payloads. However, following the collapse of the USSR and the easing of global tensions, the need for such a broad deterrent diminished. Land-based medium-range ballistic missiles were decommissioned, and plans for their modernization were abandoned.

Today, the core of France’s nuclear capability lies in its M51 intercontinental solid-fuel submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which form the backbone of its strategic deterrent. The M51 has a range exceeding 8,000 kilometers and carries multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs). These missiles are continually upgraded, and one of the four submarine launch platforms is always on patrol, each armed with 16 missiles – considered sufficient for peacetime readiness.

The second nuclear component is the ASMP-A (Air-Sol Moyenne Portée – Amélioré) air-launched missile. This supersonic weapon, with a range of around 500 kilometers, can carry a nuclear warhead. Its primary launch platform is the Rafale multirole fighter jet, while earlier models were deployed on Mirage IV bombers. Although its range is limited, its operational reach can be extended by aerial refueling, allowing strikes far beyond France’s borders.

In cooperation with the UK, France also produces the SCALP EG air-launched cruise missile, identical to the British Storm Shadow, which has a range of roughly 560 kilometers.

The missile features a low-observable design and can be deployed by nearly all French strike aircraft. A sea-based variant, SCALP Naval, is currently under development. Exocet anti-ship missiles are extensively used by the French Navy, which have a range of up to 180 kilometers depending on the version.

Like its automotive industry, France’s missile sector has faced both achievements and setbacks. On the one hand, missiles such as the SCALP EG, developed jointly with Britain, have seen real combat use and can be considered modern and combat-proven. On the other hand, France’s strategic M51 program suffered a failed test launch and explosion in 2013, and the ASMP-A air-launched missiles remain limited in number, used exclusively by the French Air Force.

Even so, France continues to invest in its missile programs and clearly intends to preserve its competencies across key areas of missile development.

Germany’s one-missile industry

Germany has refrained from developing strategic missile systems or even operational-tactical missiles since the end of the Second World War. However, with the creation of the Taurus missile system, the country’s ambitions and technical potential have grown noticeably.

The Taurus KEPD 350 air-launched cruise missile, developed jointly with Sweden, has a range exceeding 500 kilometers and entered service in the early 2000s. It has since been supplied to Spain and South Korea. The Taurus is regarded as one of the most advanced cruise missiles in its class, with a range of up to 1,000 kilometers depending on the version. It can be launched from a range of aircraft, including the JAS-39 Gripen, Tornado, Eurofighter, F/A-18, and South Korea’s fifth-generation KF-21 Boramae.

The missile uses a sophisticated guidance system that combines inertial navigation, satellite positioning, and terrain imaging, ensuring accuracy even if satellite signals are jammed or unavailable.

The Taurus program has been relatively successful, but it remains Germany’s only notable missile project at the moment. It is possible that Berlin will eventually move beyond existing missile restrictions, as there are signs of growing interest in ground-based missile systems with ranges exceeding 300 kilometers.

For now, however, the strengths of Germany’s missile industry remain largely theoretical. While the possible transfer of Taurus missiles to Ukraine is being actively discussed, these missiles have never been used in combat, and their performance remains a matter of speculation rather than practice.

Norway’s quiet missile boom

Norway has unexpectedly become one of Europe’s more active players in missile production and export. The Norwegian company Kongsberg Defense & Aerospace manufactures the Naval Strike Missile (NSM), which has a range of up to 185 kilometers and is being actively promoted worldwide. The missile is designed for both ship- and ground-based platforms, while new versions for aircraft and submarines are in development.

Orders for the NSM are already booked well into the 2030s. The missile is currently supplied to countries including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, Belgium, Lithuania, and Poland. Compact and relatively affordable, the NSM uses an infrared seeker for terminal guidance, programmed with profiles of modern naval targets. During flight, it relies on satellite navigation and an inertial autopilot. Its compact dimensions and stealth-oriented design make it difficult to detect.

There has been discussion of re-exporting these missiles from Poland to Ukraine, although Warsaw appears reluctant to reduce its own stockpiles. Visually, the NSM resembles the British Storm Shadow but is smaller and lighter, making it a harder target for air defense systems.

Still, the system’s reputation as a “perfect and effective” weapon remains to be proven in practice. Real-world combat experience and long-term operational data are still limited, and it may be premature to draw firm conclusions about the missile’s actual performance.

Sweden: Neutral no more

In the 1940s and 1950s, Sweden actively engaged in the research and development of long-range missile systems. Many of these projects were influenced by German engineering expertise but gradually lost government support.

Today, Sweden remains an important player in European defense cooperation programs and has established itself as a capable manufacturer of aviation and missile systems. The country’s defense industry focuses primarily on anti-ship missile technology with ranges of up to 300 kilometers.

The RBS-15 missile family, developed by Saab, is the cornerstone of Sweden’s missile production. These systems are exported to countries such as Germany, Poland, and Finland. The missiles can be launched from ships or aircraft and continue to undergo modernization. A new variant with an extended range of up to 1,000 kilometers is currently under development.

Sweden’s missile program reflects a balance between industrial capability and geopolitical restraint. Although its systems are advanced and export-oriented, they remain focused on regional defense rather than strategic deterrence.

The continent’s paper firepower

Other European nations are also engaged in missile development, though most act as users and consumers rather than producers. Cooperation programs dominate the landscape, while individual national projects are rare. Italy’s Otomat anti-ship missile remains one of the few exceptions – a domestically produced tactical system that demonstrates a measure of independence.

Most European states still lack long-range missile systems exceeding 150 kilometers in range. Poland is the closest to bridging this gap through the acquisition of South Korean K239 Chunmoo systems, which allow for interchangeable modules capable of strikes between 36 and 300 kilometers. Poland has also received American HIMARS launchers, which can deploy operational-tactical ATACMS missiles with a range of up to 300 kilometers.

A similar picture can be seen across other regions, including the Baltic states, which primarily depend on imported systems – mainly American or other NATO-supplied weapons. Several European navies also use anti-ship missiles with ranges of up to 200 kilometers, such as the American-made Harpoon.

Perhaps the most critical point is that the majority of Europe’s missile systems remain “exhibition” or “documentary” achievements – impressive on paper and in demonstrations, but untested in real combat. One of the few exceptions, the French-made SCALP EG missile, has been deployed in the conflict in Ukraine. Yet even this system, while modern, has not proven decisive and is effectively intercepted by Russian air defenses – a fact that cannot be ignored.